Understanding Epigenetics: Professor Oluwafemi Esan Explores Generational Trauma and Mental Health Implications

Professor Oluwafemi Esan | Contributor on spirituality and mental health topics

Sir Professor (Rev.) Oluwafemi Esan is a Professor of Biblical Psychology, Chaplain General of the Sovereign Order of St. John of Jerusalem and Malta, and the Vice-Chancellor of El-Roi London University in the United Kingdom. He is also a regular contributor at AClasses Media on spirituality and mental health related topics. In this analysis, he explores the question of epigenetic evidence for generational trauma.

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What is Epigenetics?

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without altering the underlying DNA sequence itself. In essence, while genetics provides the fundamental instructions (the “hardware”), epigenetics controls how those instructions are used (the “software”), determining which genes are turned “on” or “off” in different cells and at different times. 

The collection of all epigenetic modifications within a cell’s genome is known as the epigenome. The epigenome is dynamic and can be influenced by factors such as age, diet, lifestyle, and environmental exposures, including toxins and stress. Epigenetic changes primarily occur through several key mechanisms.

DNA Methylation: The most widely studied mechanism, this involves adding a small chemical (a methyl group) to a DNA base, usually a cytosine. This modification typically acts like a “switch off” signal, physically blocking the gene’s promoter region and preventing the cellular machinery from reading the gene. Histone Modification: DNA is wrapped around structural proteins called histones.

Chemical tags (such as acetyl or methyl groups) can be added to or removed from the “tails” of these histones. These modifications affect how tightly the DNA is packaged. Tightly packed DNA (heterochromatin) silences genes, while loosely packed DNA (euchromatin) allows genes to be expressed.

Non-coding RNAs: Functional RNA molecules that do not encode proteins can also regulate gene expression by various mechanisms, including marking messenger RNA (mRNA) for degradation or assisting in DNA methylation and histone modification.

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Epigenetics plays a crucial role in many biological processes and human health. Cell Differentiation: It is how a single fertilised egg develops into the many different, specialised cell types (e.g., nerve, muscle, skin cells) in the body, each performing unique functions despite having the exact same DNA.

Disease Development: Errors in epigenetic processes are linked to a variety of conditions, including cancers, metabolic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and schizophrenia. (Martin and Zhang, 2007).

Environmental Influence

Diet, stress, and toxin exposure can induce epigenetic changes, some of which may be long-lasting or even passed down to offspring, affecting their health and development. Unlike DNA mutations, some epigenetic changes are reversible.

This has led to the development of new treatments, such as drugs targeting specific epigenetic modifications for various cancers. Epigenetic evidence suggests that trauma can be passed down through generations by altering gene expression, not the DNA sequence itself.

This happens when traumatic experiences cause epigenetic changes, such as methylation, in the body’s cells, and these modifications can be transmitted to offspring via eggs or sperm, impacting their risk for mental health and physical health issues later in life.

Studies on historical events like the Holocaust and Dutch Hunger Winter have found that the descendants of those who experienced trauma show epigenetic signatures and increased health risks associated with the original trauma.

Generational trauma is the psychological and emotional effects of traumatic events that are passed down through families and can be transmitted through genetics and learned behaviours.

Symptoms can include anxiety, depression, and relationship difficulties, and may be passed down by ancestors who experienced events like war, oppression, or abuse. This trauma can be broken through therapeutic interventions and by learning healthier coping mechanisms. (Skvortsova, Iovino, and Bogdanović, 2018).

Gene expression, not sequence: Trauma does not change the DNA sequence, but it can act like a “marginal note” that tells the body how to read and respond to the DNA. These are called epigenetic modifications, and they can switch genes on or off.

A common epigenetic mechanism is DNA methylation, in which a methyl group is added to DNA, thereby silencing a gene. Studies have found different methylation patterns in the genes of people who have experienced trauma, and these patterns can be passed down.

Genes associated with the stress response, such as FKBP5, have been shown to exhibit epigenetic changes in the descendants of trauma survivors.

Transmission to Offspring

Maternal trauma can lead to epigenetic changes in the DNA within her eggs, impacting the mental health of her children. Studies on male trauma survivors have found different methylation patterns in their sperm compared to non-traumatised men.

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Research on non-human animals suggests that sperm cells can acquire epigenetic marks as they mature. Some small RNA molecules in sperm have been identified as potential carriers of epigenetic information across generations. Children of trauma survivors may have an increased risk for conditions such as PTSD, anxiety, depression, obesity, and diabetes.

Potential for reversal

Epigenetic changes can be reversed. Studies on mice have shown that positive experiences or environmental enrichment can reverse some of the negative epigenetic modifications caused by trauma.

Recent studies indicate that a father’s experienced stress, particularly during childhood, can leave epigenetic traces in his sperm cells. Epigenetic trauma in sperm refers to stress and other adverse life experiences that can cause chemical modifications to the sperm’s DNA and RNA, which are then passed to offspring.

These changes are not in the DNA sequence itself, but rather in how genes are expressed, potentially influencing a child’s behaviour, stress response, and susceptibility to certain diseases.

This is thought to happen through epigenetic information carried in small noncoding RNAs, such as microRNAs, and potentially other RNA molecules, which can regulate development and phenotype in offspring. (Lacal and Ventura, 2018).

 Behavioural and emotional impact

The inheritance of these epigenetic marks may contribute to anxiety-related patterns or altered stress responses in the child. Disease predisposition: Epigenetic changes from paternal trauma have been linked to a greater predisposition for certain brain disorders and psychiatric conditions in the offspring.

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While the effects can be passed down, some research suggests that positive and enriched environments may help reverse these traumatic stress-induced epigenetic changes in sperm and eggs.

There is also evidence that individual experiences later in life can influence the nervous system and potentially change or “rewrite” some of these inherited patterns.

The identified epigenetic changes were near genes (e.g., CRTC1 and GBX2) known to be involved in brain development. This suggests a possible mechanism by which paternal stress could influence the development of the central nervous system in the next generation.

These findings support the concept of intergenerational epigenetic inheritance, suggesting that a parent’s experiences may have a greater effect on future generations than previously assumed. (Lind and Spagopoulou, 2018).

The concept of generational trauma in women’s bodies is a topic of emerging scientific study, primarily explored through epigenetics and the unique biology of female egg cells. The process begins during fetal development, meaning a woman’s egg cells were present in her mother’s womb, which physically links three generations.

Intergenerational Transmission: The effects of parental stress can be transmitted to immediate offspring through various pathways, including the mother’s physiological state during pregnancy and, potentially, through the gametes (egg and sperm).

The Three-Generation Link

Because a female fetus develops all her future egg cells in her mother’s womb, environmental or traumatic exposure to the pregnant grandmother (F0) can simultaneously directly impact the mother (F1) and the germ cells of the future grandchild (F2).

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Evidence suggests that a woman’s physical and emotional experiences can influence the biological environment of her egg cells, potentially preparing future generations to cope with similar environments through epigenetic changes. This highlights a profound physical and biological connection between women across generations. (Heard and Martienssen, 2014).

“Transpersonal generational trauma” refers to the concept of psychological and emotional wounds that are passed down across generations (generational trauma) and are addressed from a transpersonal psychology perspective, which incorporates spiritual, collective, and holistic dimensions of the human experience beyond the individual ego.

This is the phenomenon where the psychological and physiological effects of trauma experienced by one generation affect subsequent generations, even if they did not directly experience the original event.

It is not just a personal wound, but a systemic pattern of suffering that can manifest as anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, chronic pain, and relationship difficulties.

In a transpersonal context, generational trauma is viewed not just as a psychological issue transmitted through family dynamics or potential epigenetic changes, but as a deeper wound that can affect an individual’s sense of identity and connection to their ancestry and the broader human collective.

Collective Unconscious/Memory

Trauma is believed to be stored in a collective consciousness or shared group memory, influencing individuals at the societal level. Spiritual Disconnection: Trauma can disrupt a person’s sense of meaning and connection to the sacred or their authentic self (higher Self), leading to feelings of alienation.

Transpersonal approaches emphasise connecting with the strengths and “gifts” of ancestors (ancestral lineage) to balance and heal the inherited pain and legacy burdens. (Siadatnejad, 2025).

Pneumatology, the theological study of the Holy Spirit, is explored in some theological and pastoral care contexts as a framework for holistic emotional and spiritual healing of generational trauma.

This approach emphasises the belief that the Holy Spirit’s presence and action can facilitate profound inner transformation and renewal, complementing psychological and therapeutic methods.

The Holy Spirit as the Comforter (Parakletos): The Holy Spirit is seen as an active, personal presence that engages with believers’ emotional realities, providing comfort and a foundation for emotional restoration.

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Pneumatology often emphasises that humans are fundamentally relational beings, created for connection with God and others. Trauma, which often causes disconnection and isolation, can be healed through restoring these relationships with the support of the Spirit.

Transformation and Renewal: This perspective posits that the Holy Spirit works to transform and renew life from within, helping individuals break inherited patterns of fear and dysregulation.

Some theological explorations suggest that a pneumatological approach can address aspects of trauma that transcend purely rational or cognitive understanding, utilising affect theory and the non-material influence of the Spirit.

The pneumatological approach to healing generational trauma is typically not a standalone method but rather integrates with professional mental health practices.

Complementary to Therapy: It is viewed as a spiritual dimension that can work alongside evidence-based therapies like Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR), or Somatic Therapy, which address both the psychological and physical manifestations of trauma. Community and Support: Healing happens in connection with others. The church or spiritual communities can provide the “healing ecosystem” needed for survivors to process trauma in a safe, supportive environment.

Addressing the Whole Person: This integrated approach acknowledges the physical, psychological, and spiritual dimensions of trauma, moving beyond a sole focus on pathology to incorporate values of hope, resilience, and growth. (Valentine, 2017).

In essence, a pneumatological perspective offers a framework for understanding that deep-seated, inherited emotional wounds can be addressed through intentional spiritual practices, prayer, and community support, guided by the belief in the active, transformative power of the Holy Spirit.

Reference Lists

Martin, C. and Zhang, Y., 2007. Mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance. Current opinion in cell biology, 19(3), pp.266-272. 

Skvortsova, K., Iovino, N. and Bogdanović, O., 2018. Functions and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance in animals. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology, 19(12), pp.774-790. 

Lacal, I. and Ventura, R., 2018. Epigenetic inheritance: concepts, mechanisms and perspectives. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, p.292.

Lind, M.I. and Spagopoulou, F., 2018. Evolutionary consequences of epigenetic inheritance. Heredity, 121(3), pp.205-209.

Heard, E. and Martienssen, R.A., 2014. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: myths and mechanisms. Cell, 157(1), pp.95-109.

Siadatnejad, N., 2025. Echoes of the Past: The Effects of Intergenerational Trauma on the Development of Self. Pacifica Graduate Institute.

Valentine, L., 2017. Affect Theology: An Examination of Pneumatology and its Relation to Trauma and Recovery.

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